Development of the human eyeball and orbit during the fetal life.
Tomasik Ewa,Czepita Damian,Zejmo Maria,Czerwiński Florian
Annales Academiae Medicae Stetinensis
PURPOSE:The aim of this paper was to describe the development of the human eyeball and orbit during fetal life. MATERIAL AND METHODS:Eighteen human fetuses (36 eyes and 36 orbits) with gestational age ranging from 17 to 28 weeks were examined. Fetuses died in the first hours of life due to immaturity and did not reveal any developmental anomalies. The axial and equatorial diameters of the eyeballs as well as the depth and width of the orbits were measured. The data was analyzed statistically with Student's t-test and Pearson's correlation coefficients. RESULTS:It was found that the axial length (p < 0.005) and equatorial diameter (p < 0.001) of the eyeballs, as well as the depth (p < 0.001) and width (p < 0.001) of the orbit increase with age. Furthermore, growth of the axial length of the eye is paralleled by increase in orbital depth (p < 0.001) while growth of the equatorial diameter coincides with increasing orbital width (p < 0.001). It was ascertained that growth of the human eye during fetal life is correlated with growth of the orbit.
Pre-term delivery and the growth of the eye. An oculometric study of eye size around term-time.
Fledelius H C
Acta ophthalmologica. Supplement
Refraction and axial eye dimensions, evaluated by ultrasound measurements, were investigated in 101 pre-term infants and 25 full-term controls. Gestational ages in the pre-term group ranged from 25 to 34 weeks, birth weights from 728 to 2480 g. All were seen in the eye clinic due to risk of developing retinopathy of prematurity. Age at examination was 36-54 weeks (gestational/conceptional) in the pre-terms and 37.3-50 weeks in the term infants. Adjusted to a 40 weeks axial length value (based on an assumed average eye elongation of 0.14 mm per week) the term-values were similar, 17.02 and 17.03 mm in the two groups. Within the premature group, however, the 40-week adjusted axial lengths were shorter, the shorter the gestational age. The study demonstrated more foetal anterior segment proportions, with flatter anterior chambers and thicker, more spheroid lenses in the preterm infants. Probably this explains the early preponderance of myopia in that group, at feature eventually to disappear, and not to be confused with myopia of prematurity. As compared to the full-terms a correlational disturbance by pre-term delivery was further indicated by the absence of the usual correlation between axial length and refractive value.
10.1111/j.1755-3768.1992.tb04915.x
Measurement of facial growth in the human fetus.
Denis D,Burguiere O,Oudahi F,Scheiner C
Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology = Albrecht von Graefes Archiv fur klinische und experimentelle Ophthalmologie
BACKGROUND:The fetal face is clearly seen by ultrasonography: we considered measurement of certain orbitofacial parameters of interest in the human fetus in order to establish norms for facial development. METHODS:We included 108 "normal" fetuses ranging in age from 16.5 to 41 weeks of amenorrhea. The orbitofacial parameters studied were outer canthal distance, inner canthal distance, oropalpebral distance right side and left side, and palpebral fissure length side and left side. The ocular parameters studied were corneal horizontal diameter and axial length. The traditional anthropometric parameters of the fetus were determined by pathological examination: age, weight head circumference and height. A statistical study analyzed the different correlations and established linear regression equations for orbitofacial parameters as a function of age. Polynomial regression models were tested to the third degree as a function of age and the head circumference/II ratio. RESULTS:Results are given in six different age groups. We find excellent correlation between the different parameters. Statistically valid linear regression equations were established for orbitofacial parameters. Polynomial regression equations were compared to linear equations their correlation coefficient and standard error, but showed no greater validity. Skull growth is more rapid than facial growth, which itself is more rapid vertically than horizontally. CONCLUSION:This study establishes norms for the different orbitofacial parameters, in particular the oropalpebral distance, for which we found no bibliographic references. The general interest of these measures lies in the description of malformation syndromes.
Does diabetes mellitus affect the development of fetal brain structures and spaces including corpus callosum, subarachnoid space, insula, and parieto-occipital fissure?
Journal of clinical ultrasound : JCU
PURPOSE:We investigated the impact of pregestational and gestational diabetes mellitus (PGDM and GDM) on the development of fetal intracranial structures and spaces. METHODS:This prospective cross-sectional study involved singleton pregnancies between 20 and 32 weeks of gestation. The study comprised a control group (n = 65) of healthy pregnant women without diabetes mellitus (DM); a PGDM group (n = 43) of pregnant women having type 2 DM in a controlled diabetic state; and a GDM group (n = 26) of pregnant women with GDM diagnosed with 2-h 75-g oral glucose tolerance test and received intervention to reduce the diabetic impact on fetus. During neurosonographic evaluation, the simultaneous measurements of corpus callosum (CC) width and depth in the midsagittal image; and lateral craniocortical and posterior craniocortical widths of the subarachnoid space and insular and parieto-occipital fissure depths in the axial image were performed. Before statistical analysis, these values were carefully adjusted for the occipitofrontal diameter. RESULTS:The DM groups displayed substantially higher frequencies of family history of DM and obstetric history of GDM compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Regarding the neurosonographic parameters, the CC length and insular and parieto-occipital fissure depths were significantly increased in the GDM group but not in the PGDM group (p < 0.05). No significant difference was found among the study groups regarding other neurosonographic parameters (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION:The results of neurosonographical evaluation of fetal brain structures and spaces reveal that diabetic impact may not be seen in the presence of PGDM, especially in pregnant women receiving prenatal interventions to reduce or avoid diabetic adverse effects on fetal brain development. The effect of GDM on neurosonographically assessed fetal brain development should be evaluated in further studies with subjects matched for gestational weeks and antenatal care conditions.
10.1002/jcu.23597
Associations Between Fetal Growth Trajectories and the Development of Myopia by 20 Years of Age.
Dyer Kathleen I C,Sanfilippo Paul G,White Scott W,Guggenheim Jeremy A,Hammond Chris J,Newnham John P,Mackey David A,Yazar Seyhan
Investigative ophthalmology & visual science
Purpose:To evaluate the contribution of genetic and early life environmental factors, as reflected by fetal anthropometric growth trajectories, toward the development of myopia during childhood and adolescence. Methods:This analysis included 498 singleton Caucasian participants from the Raine Study, a pregnancy cohort study based in Western Australia. Serial fetal biometric measurements of these participants were collected via ultrasound scans performed at 18, 24, 28, 34, and 38 weeks' gestation. At a 20-year follow-up, the participants underwent a comprehensive ophthalmic examination, including cycloplegic autorefraction and ocular biometry measurements. Using a group-based trajectory modeling approach, we identified groups of participants with similar growth trajectories based on measurements of fetal head circumference (HC), abdominal circumference, femur length (FL), and estimated fetal weight (EFW). Differences between trajectory groups with respect to prevalence of myopia, axial length (AL), and corneal radius of curvature measured at the 20-year follow-up were evaluated via logistic regression and analysis of variance. Results:Prevalence of myopia was highest among participants with consistently short or consistently long FLs (P = 0.04). There was also a trend toward increased prevalence with larger HC in late gestation, although not at a statistically significant level. Trajectory groups reflecting faster HC, FL, or EFW growth correlated with significantly flatter corneas (P = 0.03, P = 0.04, and P = 0.01, respectively) and a general, but not statistically significant, increase in AL. Conclusions:Environmental or genetic factors influencing intrauterine skeletal growth may concurrently affect ocular development, with effects persisting into adulthood.
10.1167/iovs.61.14.26
Ocular growth in the fetus. 1. Comparative study of axial length and biometric parameters in the fetus.
Denis D,Righini M,Scheiner C,Volot F,Boubli L,Dezard X,Vola J,Saracco J B
Ophthalmologica. Journal international d'ophtalmologie. International journal of ophthalmology. Zeitschrift fur Augenheilkunde
The knowledge of ocular growth during fetal life, when compared with other fetal biometric parameters, could not only provide a better definition of malformation syndromes but could also give a better understanding of certain pathological processes in premature babies and in newborns. As the literature concerning prenatal ocular dimensions contains few data, the aim of this study was to measure the axial length of the globe (AL) in fetuses and compare this measurement with their gestational age, weight, height, head circumference (HC) and thoracic circumference (TC) in order to compile a reference table. In the present study, 76 globes from 38 fetuses (18-41 weeks gestational age) from the Department of Pathology (Timone University Hospital, Marseille) were examined. Ultrasonography A and B were used to measure the AL, and a pathological examination determined fetal weight, HC, TC and height. We were interested to find out which of the parameters studied would give the best correlation with ocular growth. Statistical analysis showed that HC remained the most discriminant factor and correlated best with ocular growth. We thus obtained an equation for ocular size according to HC that could serve as a basis for detecting pre- or postnatal ocular defects.
10.1159/000310417
Axial growth of the fetal eye and evaluation of the hyaloid artery: in utero ultrasonographic study.
Achiron R,Kreiser D,Achiron A
Prenatal diagnosis
The aims of this prospective, cross-sectional study were to report axial ocular growth during human gestation, to determine the presence of the hyaloid artery (HA) and its blood flow, and to provide a timetable for HA regression. The study group comprised 231 low-risk singleton pregnancies between 14 and 38 weeks' gestation. Ocular axial length (OAL), anterior chamber depth (ACD) and posterior chamber depth (PCD) were measured using high-resolution ultrasound. The growth of these eye segments in correlation with gestational age (GA) was established. The presence of the HA and its regression were determined. By using power Doppler, ultrasound blood flow within the HA was estimated. HA regression is a gradual process that is not evident before 18 weeks' gestation. In all fetuses beyond 29 weeks' gestation, no HA could be detected (P<0.001). Blood flow within the HA was documented only until the 16th week of gestation. The correlation coefficients, r=0.924, 0.784 and 0.929, for OAL, ACD and PCD, respectively, were found to be highly statistically significant (P<0.0001). The present data offer normative measurements of the fetal axial eye lengths, timetable for HA regression and flow cessation.
Prenatal ultrasound charts of orbital total axial length measurement (TAL): a valuable data for correct fetal eye malformation assessment.
Feldman Noa,Melcer Yaakov,Levinsohn-Tavor Orna,Orenstein Adi,Svirsky Ran,Herman Arie,Maymon Ron
Prenatal diagnosis
OBJECTIVE:To construct prenatal age-specific reference intervals using ultrasound measurement of total axial length (TAL) in normal fetuses for assessing microphthalmia. METHOD:Prospective cross-sectional study of fetuses assessed at a prenatal ultrasound unit between 2011 and 2014. The study cohort comprised 309 pregnant women attending for routine fetal biometry, viability, or anomaly scan between 14 and 41 weeks of gestation. Only singleton viable fetus with normal anatomy, adequate amniotic fluid, accurate gestational age, and no maternal medical complications of pregnancy were enrolled. Biometric measurements were obtained in the axial plane in all the fetuses. Those measurements and the relevant gestational age were registered in a computerized database. RESULTS:A linear growth function was observed between gestational age and bi-orbital diameter (r(2) = 0.95; p < 0.001), ln (TAL) (r2 = 0.89; p < 0.001), OD (r(2) = 0.86; p < 0.001), and IOD (r2 = 0.79; p < 0.001). Tables showing the 5th, 50th, and 95th centiles of orbital parameters were created based on the reference interval charts. CONCLUSIONS:Ultrasound measurement of the fetal TAL ocular distance is feasible. This may assist the multidisciplinary team in the evaluation of fetal eye abnormalities that might be expressed by deviation in TAL.
10.1002/pd.4572