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FMD-VS: A virtual sensor to index FMD virus scattering. Takatsuka Kayoko,Sekiguchi Satoshi,Yamaba Hisaaki,Aburada Kentaro,Mukunoki Masayuki,Okazaki Naonobu PloS one Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) models-analytical models for tracking and analyzing FMD outbreaks-are known as dominant tools for examining the spread of the disease under various conditions and assessing the effectiveness of countermeasures. There has been some remarkable progress in modeling research since the UK epidemic in 2001. Several modeling methods have been introduced, developed, and are still growing. However, in 2010 when a FMD outbreak occurred in the Miyazaki prefecture, a crucial problem reported: Once a regional FMD outbreak occurs, municipal officials in the region must make various day-to-day decisions throughout this period of vulnerability. The deliverables of FMD modeling research in its current state appear insufficient to support the daily judgments required in such cases. FMD model can be an efficient support tool for prevention decisions. It requires being conversant with modeling and its preconditions. Therefore, most municipal officials with no knowledge or experience found full use of the model difficult. Given this limitation, the authors consider methods and systems to support users of FMD models who must make real-time epidemic-related judgments in the infected areas. We propose a virtual sensor, designated "FMD-VS," to index FMD virus scattering in conditions where there is once a notion of FMD; and (2) shows how we apply the developed FMD-VS technique during an outbreak. In (1), we show our approach to constructing FMD-VS based on the existing FMD model and offer an analysis and evaluation method to assess its performance. We again present the results produced when the technique applied to 2010 infection data from the Miyazaki Prefecture. For (2), we outline the concept of a method that supports the prevention judgment of municipal officials and show how to use FMD-VS. 10.1371/journal.pone.0237961
A history of FMD research and control programmes in Southeast Asia: lessons from the past informing the future. Blacksell Stuart D,Siengsanan-Lamont Jarunee,Kamolsiripichaiporn Somjai,Gleeson Laurence J,Windsor Peter A Epidemiology and infection Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a major animal health problem within Southeast Asia (SEA). Although Indonesia and more recently the Philippines have achieved freedom from FMD, the disease remains endemic on continental SEA. Control of FMD within SEA would increase access to markets in more developed economies and reduce lost productivity in smallholder and emerging commercial farmer settings. However, despite many years of vaccination by individual countries, numerous factors have prevented the successful control of FMD within the region, including unregulated 'informal' transboundary movement of livestock and their products, difficulties implementing vaccination programmes, emergence of new virus topotypes and lineages, low-level technical capacity and biosecurity at national levels, limited farmer knowledge on FMD disease recognition, failure of timely outbreak reporting and response, and limitations in national and international FMD control programmes. This paper examines the published research of FMD in the SEA region, reviewing the history, virology, epidemiology and control programmes and identifies future opportunities for FMD research aimed at the eventual eradication of FMD from the region. 10.1017/S0950268819000578
Integrating the Technical, Risk Management and Economic Implications of Animal Disease Control to Advise Policy Change: The Example of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Control in Uruguay. Perry Brian,Rich Karl M,Rojas Hernán,Romero Jaime,Adamson David,Bervejillo José Eduardo,Fernandez Federico,Pereira Alvaro,Pérez Lautaro,Reich Fernando,Sarno Rafael,Vitale Edgardo,Stanham Federico,Rushton Jonathan EcoHealth 10.1007/s10393-020-01489-6
One-size measures do not fit all areas: Evaluation of area-specific control of foot and mouth disease in Thailand using bioeconomic modelling. Preventive veterinary medicine Information on the epidemiological and economic consequences of control measures is fundamental to design effective foot and mouth disease (FMD) control measures. One approach to obtaining this information is through bioeconomic modelling. In this study, a bioeconomic model was used to evaluate FMD control in two different study areas in Thailand: a high farm density area predominantly consisting of dairy farms and a low farm density area with mixed farm types. The bioeconomic model consists of an epidemiological part and an economic part. For the epidemiological part, a stochastic between-farm transmission model was constructed with transmission parameters estimated from FMD outbreaks in Thailand. The outputs from the epidemiological model, i.e. the number of infected farms, the number of affected farms and the outbreak duration, are used as inputs for economic model to calculate the economic consequences. We applied the simulation model with four FMD control measures: culling the animals of infected farms, ring vaccination, animal movement restrictions and isolation of infected farms. Furthermore, we included effect of farmers' compliance to asses its effect on control measures. The simulated FMD outbreaks in the low farm density area were small, thus control measures did not greatly affect the size of outbreaks and, therefore, did not have a positive economic return. In contrast, in the high farm density area, FMD outbreaks were large without control measures. All measures reduced the size of the outbreaks but resulted in different total costs. In terms of outbreak control, culling infectious farms was the best option, but its total cost was higher than ring vaccination or isolation of infected farms. In terms of cost-effectiveness, ring vaccination was the best measure. If farmers' compliance were low, all control measures would be ineffective, resulting in high total cost of the outbreak. The cost distribution between compliant and non-compliant farms showed that non-compliant farms paid more than compliant farms, except for the ring vaccination scenario. The results emphasize the economic significance to customize control measures specific to the area's conditions and highlight the importance of farmers' compliance when designing control measures. 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106359
Management strategies for vaccinated animals after an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease and the impact on return to trade. Bradhurst Richard,Garner Graeme,East Iain,Death Clare,Dodd Aaron,Kompas Tom PloS one An incursion of Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in a previously FMD-free country can cause significant economic damage from immediate and prolonged closure of FMD-sensitive markets. Whilst emergency vaccination may help contain disease, the presence of vaccinated animals complicates post-outbreak management and the recovery of FMD-free status for return to trade. We present enhancements to the Australian Animal DISease (AADIS) model that allow comparisons of post-outbreak management strategies for vaccinated animals, for the purposes of securing the earliest possible return to trade. Two case studies are provided that compare the retention of vaccinated animals with removal for waste/salvage, and the impact on recovery of FMD-sensitive markets per OIE guidelines. It was found that a vaccinate-and-retain strategy was associated with lower post-outbreak management costs, however this advantage was outweighed by significantly higher trade losses. Under the assumptions of the study there was no cost advantage to salvaging the removed vaccinated animals. 10.1371/journal.pone.0223518
Outbreak response intervention models of vaccine-preventable diseases in humans and foot-and-mouth disease in livestock: a protocol for a systematic review. Azam James M,Are Elisha B,Pang Xiaoxi,Ferrari Matthew J,Pulliam Juliet R C BMJ open INTRODUCTION:Outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases continue to threaten public health, despite the proven effectiveness of vaccines. Interventions such as vaccination, social distancing and palliative care are usually implemented, either individually or in combination, to control these outbreaks. Mathematical models are often used to assess the impact of these interventions and for supporting outbreak response decision making. The objectives of this systematic review, which covers all human vaccine-preventable diseases, are to determine the relative impact of vaccination compared with other outbreak interventions, and to ascertain the temporal trends in the use of modelling in outbreak response decision making. We will also identify gaps and opportunities for future research through a comparison with the foot-and-mouth disease outbreak response modelling literature, which has good examples of the use of modelling to inform outbreak response intervention decision making. METHODS AND ANALYSIS:We searched on PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar and some preprint servers from the start of indexing to 15 January 2020. Inclusion: modelling studies, published in English, that use a mechanistic approach to evaluate the impact of an outbreak intervention. Exclusion: reviews, and studies that do not describe or use mechanistic models or do not describe an outbreak. We will extract data from the included studies such as their objectives, model types and composition, and conclusions on the impact of the intervention. We will ascertain the impact of models on outbreak response decision making through visualisation of time trends in the use of the models. We will also present our results in narrative style. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION:This systematic review will not require any ethics approval since it only involves scientific articles. The review will be disseminated in a peer-reviewed journal and at various conferences fitting its scope. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER:CRD42020160803. 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-036172
In-process quality control in foot-and-mouth disease vaccine production by detection of viral non-structural proteins using chemiluminescence dot blot assay. Journal of virological methods Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a contagious viral disease of cloven-footed animals. Immunization with inactivated virus vaccine is effective to control the disease. Six-monthly vaccination regimen in endemic regions has proven to be effective. To enable the differentiation of infected animals from those vaccinated, non-structural proteins (NSPs) are excluded during vaccine production. While the antibodies to structural proteins (SPs) could be observed both in vaccinated and infected animals, NSP antibodies are detectable only in natural infection. Quality control assays that detect NSPs in vaccine antigen preparations, are thus vital in the FMD vaccine manufacturing process. In this study, we designed a chemiluminescence dot blot assay to detect the 3A and 3B NSPs of FMDV. It is sensitive enough to detect up to 20 ng of the NSP, and exhibited specificity as it does not react with the viral SPs. This cost-effective assay holds promise in quality control assessment in FMD vaccine manufacturing. 10.1016/j.jviromet.2024.114906
Predicting the Ability of Preclinical Diagnosis To Improve Control of Farm-to-Farm Foot-and-Mouth Disease Transmission in Cattle. Nelson Noel,Paton David J,Gubbins Simon,Colenutt Claire,Brown Emma,Hodgson Sophia,Gonzales Jose L Journal of clinical microbiology Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) can cause large disruptive epidemics in livestock. Current eradication measures rely on the rapid clinical detection and removal of infected herds. Here, we evaluated the potential for preclinical diagnosis during reactive surveillance to reduce the risk of between-farm transmission. We used data from transmission experiments in cattle where both samples from individual animals, such as blood, probang samples, and saliva and nasal swabs, and herd-level samples, such as air samples, were taken daily during the course of infection. The sensitivity of each of these sample types for the detection of infected cattle during different phases of the early infection period was quantified. The results were incorporated into a mathematical model for FMD, in a cattle herd, to evaluate the impact of the early detection and culling of an infected herd on the infectious output. The latter was expressed as the between-herd reproduction ratio, , where an effective surveillance approach would lead to a reduction in the value to <1. Applying weekly surveillance, clinical inspection alone was found to be ineffective at blocking transmission. This was in contrast to the impact of weekly random sampling (i.e., using saliva swabs) of at least 10 animals per farm or daily air sampling (housed cattle), both of which were shown to reduce the to <1. In conclusion, preclinical detection during outbreaks has the potential to allow earlier culling of infected herds and thereby reduce transmission and aid the control of epidemics. 10.1128/JCM.00179-17
A TaqMan-based RT-qPCR assay for serotyping of Southern African territories (SAT) 2 strains of Foot-and-Mouth disease virus (FMDV) in Southern Africa. BMC research notes OBJECTIVE:Determining the serotype of circulating virus strains is important in implementing effective vaccination. In this study, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) Southern African territory 2 (SAT2) specific primers and TaqMan probe were designed towards rapid SAT2 detection and serotyping. The primers were tested by endpoint reverse transcription (RT) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) using the vaccine strain SAT2035. The SAT2 serotype-specific RT-qPCR assay was compared with currently used ELISA and VP1 sequencing using Cohen's kappa statistics. RESULTS:The primers yielded amplicons of band size 190 bp during endpoint RT-PCR. When coupled with the probe, the primers reaction efficiency was determined to be 99% with an r value of 0.994. The results show that the SAT2 assay has comparable performance to VP1 sequencing (k = 1) and a moderate degree of agreement with ELISA (k = 0.571). The data shows that the newly designed assay could be considered for serotyping of SAT2 strains. However, for this assay to be complete there is a need to design effective SAT1 and SAT3 primers and probes that can be multiplexed to target other serotypes that co-circulate within relevant FMD endemic pools. For future implementation of the assay there is also a need to increase the number of field samples towards validation of the assay. 10.1186/s13104-023-06586-7
Development of a double-antibody sandwich ELISA for rapidly quantitative detection of residual non-structural proteins in inactivated foot-and-mouth disease virus vaccines. Journal of virological methods Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious and economically devastating disease of cloven-hoofed animals. Vaccination and surveillance against non-structure protein (NSP) are the most efficacious and cost-effective strategy to control this disease. Therefore, vaccine purity control is vital for successful prevention. Currently, vaccine purity is tested by an in-vivo test that recommended in the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH), but it is time consuming and costly. Herein, we develop a double-antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA) for quantitative detection of residual NSPs in inactivated FMD virus (FMDV) vaccines. In this assay, the monoclonal antibody 3A24 was selected as capture antibody and biotinylated 3B4B1 (Biotin-3B4B1) as detection antibody. A standard curve was developed using the NSP 3AB concentration versus OD value with the linear range of concentration of 2.5-160 ng/mL. The lowest limit of detection was 2.5 ng/mL. In addition, we determined 2.5 ng/mL of NSP as an acceptable threshold value of FMD vaccine purity using a dose-response experiment in cattle. The DAS-ELISA combined with the threshold value of FMD vaccine purity could provide a quick and simple tool for evaluation the antigenic purity of FMD vaccine during the manufacturing process. 10.1016/j.jviromet.2023.114676
A new blocking ELISA for detection of foot-and-mouth disease non-structural protein (NSP) antibodies in a broad host range. Applied microbiology and biotechnology Large-scale monitoring of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in livestock is imperative in an FMD control program. Detection of antibodies against non-structural proteins (NSP) of FMD virus (FMDV) is one of the best tools to estimate the prevalence of past infection; availability of such a well-validated test is therefore essential. Using a FMDV 3B protein-specific monoclonal antibody, we have developed a new NSP antibody blocking ELISA (10H9 bELISA) and validated it on large panels of sera from different susceptible species. The diagnostic sensitivity of the ELISA was 95% with a specificity of 98%, similar to the values found using a commercial kit (PrioCHECK FMD NS test). The 10H9 bELISA can be used in a broad range of FMD susceptible species making it a very useful tool in monitoring the foot-and-mouth disease control programs by detection of virus circulation in the vaccinated populations. KEY POINTS: • A new ELISA for detection of foot and mouth disease (FMD) antibodies. • Diagnostic sensitivity of 95% and specificity of 98%. • Tested with panels of validated sera from broad host range. 10.1007/s00253-022-12151-2
Inferring transmission routes for foot-and-mouth disease virus within a cattle herd using approximate Bayesian computation. Epidemics To control an outbreak of an infectious disease it is essential to understand the different routes of transmission and how they contribute to the overall spread of the pathogen. With this information, policy makers can choose the most efficient methods of detection and control during an outbreak. Here we assess the contributions of direct contact and environmental contamination to the transmission of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in a cattle herd using an individual-based model that includes both routes. Model parameters are inferred using approximate Bayesian computation with sequential Monte Carlo sampling (ABC-SMC) applied to data from transmission experiments and the 2007 epidemic in Great Britain. This demonstrates that the parameters derived from transmission experiments are applicable to outbreaks in the field, at least for closely related strains. Under the assumptions made in the model we show that environmental transmission likely contributes a majority of infections within a herd during an outbreak, although there is a lot of variation between simulated outbreaks. The accumulation of environmental contamination not only causes infections within a farm, but also has the potential to spread between farms via fomites. We also demonstrate the importance and effectiveness of rapid detection of infected farms in reducing transmission between farms, whether via direct contact or the environment. 10.1016/j.epidem.2024.100740
Foot and mouth disease in a wide range of wild hosts: a potential constraint in disease control efforts worldwide particularly in disease-endemic settings. Rahman Aziz-Ul,Dhama Kuldeep,Ali Qasim,Raza Muhammad Asif,Chaudhry Umer,Shabbir Muhammad Zubair Acta tropica Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a viral disease that affects predominantly cloven-footed animal species within the order Artiodactyla. The potential of the virus to transmit, maintain and circulate itself across a wide range of susceptible hosts, including both domestic and wild ungulates, remains a single major obstacle in an effective eradication of disease worldwide, particularly in disease-endemic settings. Hence, a better understanding of virus transmission dynamics is very much crucial for an efficient control of the disease, particularly at places or regions where wildlife and livestock rearing co-exists. Both OIE and FAO have jointly launched the FMD-control program as FMD-Progressive Control Pathway (PCP) in various disease-endemic developing countries. Nevertheless, the propensity of virus to inter- and intra-species transmission may be a possible constraint in disease control and, hence, its subsequent eradication in such countries. Other than this, cross-species transmission, among domestic and wild ungulates living in close proximities, can undermine the conservation efforts for endangered species. We reviewed and summarized the so-far available information about inter- and intra-species disease transmission, and its impact on wildlife populations to better comprehend disease epidemiology and substantiate efforts for eventual disease eradication across the globe, particularly in settings where the disease is endemic. 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105567
New foot-and-mouth disease vaccine, O JC-R, induce complete protection to pigs against SEA topotype viruses occurred in South Korea, 2014-2015. Jo Hye Eun,Ko Mi Kyeong,Choi Joo Hyung,Shin Sung Ho,Jo Hyundong,You Su Hwa,Lee Min Ja,Kim Su Mi,Kim Byounghan,Park Jong Hyeon Journal of veterinary science Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an acute epidemic that spreads rapidly among cattle and pigs. In 2014, in Korea, despite enforced vaccination, the type O Southeast Asia (SEA) topotype viruses (Mya-98 lineage) infected mainly cattle and pigs simultaneously, thereby causing enormous damage. If a vaccine that is completely protective against this FMD virus is developed and used, it can become a very important preventive measure in Asia, which is where this type of virus mainly circulates. The SEA topotype has been steadily evolving and transforming into new variations since it became epidemic in Asia. Therefore, it became necessary to develop a new vaccine that could provide protection against the FMD virus strain that was responsible for the 2014-2015 outbreak in Korea. This study aimed to develop a vaccine that would provide complete protection against the SEA topotype FMD virus to control sporadic FMD outbreaks, which occur despite the enforcement of vaccination, and to completely prevent virus shedding, thereby preventing the virus from spreading. The vaccine candidate virus developed in this study showed low pathogenicity and can be distinguished from the wild-type FMD virus strain. The developed vaccine was able to protect mice from SEA and Middle East-South Asia topotype virus strains and induced high titers of antibodies against both virus strains in pigs, thereby confirming the sufficiency of its protective function. In particular, the results of the SEA topotype virus challenge test in pigs revealed that perfect immunity was created in the vaccinated pigs, without virus shedding and viremia. 10.4142/jvs.2019.20.e42
Knowledge and risk factors for foot-and-mouth disease among small-scale dairy farmers in an endemic setting. Nyaguthii Dickson Machira,Armson Bryony,Kitala Philip Mwanzia,Sanz-Bernardo Beatriz,Di Nardo Antonello,Lyons Nicholas Anthony Veterinary research Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection of cloven-hoofed animals. In Kenya, the disease is endemic with outbreaks typically occurring throughout the year. A cross-sectional study was undertaken in Nakuru County to investigate farmer knowledge and risk factors for clinical disease. Semi-structured interviews were conducted on 220 smallholder farmers, selected using random spatial sampling. The majority of respondents (207/220 [94.1%]) knew of FMD and 166/207 (80.2%) of them could correctly identify the disease based on their knowledge of the clinical signs. Forty-five out of 220 farmers (20.4%) vaccinated their livestock against FMD in the previous 6 months, although of those who knew of FMD only 96/207 (46.4%) perceived it as a preventive measure undertaken to reduce the risk of disease in their farm. FMD had occurred in 5.9% of the surveyed farms within the previous 6 months (from May to November 2016). Using multivariate analysis, the use of a shared bull (OR = 9.7; p = 0.014) and the number of sheep owned (for each additional sheep owned OR = 1.1; p = 0.066) were associated with an increased likelihood of a farm experiencing a case of FMD in the previous 6 months, although the evidence for the latter was weak. This study reports risk factors associated with clinical FMD at the farm level in a densely populated smallholder farming area of Kenya. These results can be used to inform the development of risk-based strategic plans for FMD control and as a baseline for evaluating interventions and control strategies. 10.1186/s13567-019-0652-0
Predicting the Antigenic Relationship of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus for Vaccine Selection Through a Computational Model. Qiu Jingxuan,Qiu Tianyi,Dong Qingli,Xu Dongpo,Wang Xiang,Zhang Qi,Pan Jing,Liu Qing IEEE/ACM transactions on computational biology and bioinformatics Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is an antigenic-variable RNA virus that is responsible for the recurrence of foot-and-mouth disease in livestock and can be prevented and controlled using a vaccine with broad-spectrum protection. Current anti-genicity evaluation methods, which involve animal immunity experiments and serum preparation, are unable to fulfill the needs of high-throughput antigenicity measurements. This study designed an antigenicity scoring model to rapidly predict the antigenicity of FMDV. Antigenic-dominant sites were initially determined on the VP1 protein, a position-specific scoring matrix and physical chemical indexes were integrated to generate antigenicity descriptors. Independent tests showed a high accuracy of 0.848 and an AUC value of 0.889, indicating the good performance of the model in antigenicity measurement. When applying this model to historical data, annual antigenicity coverage of widely used vaccine strains was successfully evaluated, this was also supported by previous experiments. Furthermore, the utility of this model was extended to select potential broad-spectrum vaccines among 1,201 historical non-redundant strains to recommend potential univalent, bivalent and trivalent vaccine candidates. The results suggested that the computational model designed in this study could be used for the high-throughput antigenicity measurement of FMDV and could aid in vaccine development for preventing FMDV epidemics. 10.1109/TCBB.2019.2923396
Managing complexity: Simplifying assumptions of foot-and-mouth disease models for swine. Kinsley A C,VanderWaal K,Craft M E,Morrison R B,Perez A M Transboundary and emerging diseases Compartmental models have often been used to test the effectiveness and efficiency of alternative control strategies to mitigate the spread of infectious animal diseases. A fundamental principle of epidemiological modelling is that models should start as simple as possible and become as complex as needed. The simplest version of a compartmental model assumes that the population is closed, void of births and deaths and that this closed population mixes homogeneously, meaning that each infected individual has an equal probability of coming into contact with each susceptible individual in the population. However, this assumption may oversimplify field conditions, leading to conclusions about disease mitigation strategies that are suboptimal. Here, we assessed the impact of the homogeneous mixing/closed population assumption, which is commonly assumed for within-farm models of highly contagious diseases of swine, such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), on predictions about disease spread. Incorporation of farm structure (different barns or rooms for breeding and gestation, farrowing, nursery and finishing) and demography (piglet births and deaths, and animal movement within and off of the farm) resulted in transmission dynamics that differed in the latter portion of an outbreak. Specifically, farm structure and demography, which were included in the farrow to finish and farrow to wean farms, resulted in FMD virus persistence within the population under certain conditions. Results here demonstrate the impact of incorporating farm structure and demography into models of FMD spread in swine populations and will ultimately contribute to the design and evaluation of effective disease control strategies to mitigate the impact of potential incursions. 10.1111/tbed.12880
Introduction and history of foot-and-mouth disease virus. Mahy B W J Current topics in microbiology and immunology Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) has been recognized as a significant epidemic disease threatening the cattle industry since the sixteenth century, and in the late nineteenth century it was shown by Loeffler and Frosch to be caused by a submicroscopic, filterable transmissible agent, smaller than any known bacteria. The agent causing FMD was thus the first virus of vertebrates to be discovered, soon after the discovery of tobacco mosaic virus of plants. It was not until 1920 that a convenient animal model for the study of FMD virus was established by Waldmann and Pape, using guinea-pigs, and with the later development of in vitro cell culture systems for the virus, the chemical and physical properties of FMD virus were elucidated during the remainder of the twentieth century, culminating in 1989 with a complete description of the three-dimensional structure of the virion. FMD virus is classified as a species in the Aphthovirus genus of the family Picornaviridae. The virus is acid labile, and the genome RNA contains a characteristic tract of polyC located about 360 nucleotides from the 5' terminus. Seven main serotypes exist throughout the world, as well as numerous subtypes. The World Reference Laboratory for FMD is located at Pirbright, Surrey, UK and undertakes surveillance of FMD epidemics by serotyping as well as by genotyping isolates of the virus. A major epidemic of FMD occurred in the UK in 2001 and was caused by a virulent strain of FMD virus with origins in Asia. The advantages and some disadvantages of controlling FMD outbreaks by vaccination are discussed.
Challenges and opportunities for using national animal datasets to support foot-and-mouth disease control. van Andel Mary,Tildesley Michael J,Gates M Carolyn Transboundary and emerging diseases National level databases of animal numbers, locations and movements provide the essential foundations for disease preparedness, outbreak investigations and control activities. These activities are particularly important for managing and mitigating the risks of high-impact transboundary animal disease outbreaks such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), which can significantly affect international trade access and domestic food security. In countries where livestock production systems are heavily subsidized by the government, producers are often required to provide detailed animal movement and demographic data as a condition of business. In the remaining countries, it can be difficult to maintain these types of databases and impossible to estimate the extent of missing or inaccurate information due to the absence of gold standard datasets for comparison. Consequently, competent authorities are often required to make decisions about disease preparedness and control based on available data, which may result in suboptimal outcomes for their livestock industries. It is important to understand the limitations of poor data quality as well as the range of methods that have been developed to compensate in both disease-free and endemic situations. Using FMD as a case example, this review first discusses the different activities that competent authorities use farm-level animal population data for to support (1) preparedness activities in disease-free countries, (2) response activities during an acute outbreak in a disease-free country, and (3) eradication and control activities in an endemic country. We then discuss (4) data requirements needed to support epidemiological investigations, surveillance, and disease spread modelling both in disease-free and endemic countries. 10.1111/tbed.13858
Global Foot-and-Mouth Disease Research Update and Gap Analysis: 2 - Epidemiology, Wildlife and Economics. Knight-Jones T J D,Robinson L,Charleston B,Rodriguez L L,Gay C G,Sumption K J,Vosloo W Transboundary and emerging diseases We assessed knowledge gaps in foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) research, and in this study, we consider (i) epidemiology, (ii) wildlife and (iii) economics. The study took the form of a literature review (2011-2015) combined with research updates collected in 2014 from 33 institutes from across the world. Findings were used to identify priority areas for future FMD research. During 2011-2015, modelling studies were dominant in the broad field of epidemiology; however, continued efforts are required to develop robust models for use during outbreaks in FMD-free countries, linking epidemiologic and economics models. More guidance is needed for both the evaluation and the setting of targets for vaccine coverage, population immunity and vaccine field efficacy. Similarly, methods for seroprevalence studies need to be improved to obtain more meaningful outputs that allow comparison across studies. To inform control programmes in endemic countries, field trials assessing the effectiveness of vaccination in extensive smallholder systems should be performed to determine whether FMD can be controlled with quality vaccines in settings where implementing effective biosecurity is challenging. Studies need to go beyond measuring only vaccine effects and should extend our knowledge of the impact of FMD and increase our understanding of how to maximize farmer participation in disease control. Where wildlife reservoirs of virus exist, particularly African Buffalo, we need to better understand when and under what circumstances transmission to domestic animals occurs in order to manage this risk appropriately, considering the impact of control measures on livelihoods and wildlife. For settings where FMD eradication is unfeasible, further ground testing of commodity-based trade is recommended. A thorough review of global FMD control programmes, covering successes and failures, would be extremely valuable and could be used to guide other control programmes. 10.1111/tbed.12522
Foot-and-mouth disease. A review for the practitioner. Lubroth Juan The Veterinary clinics of North America. Food animal practice Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is perhaps the most infectious disease known to human and veterinary medicine. This article is written with the practitioner in mind, concentrating on early recognition, epidemiology, occurrence around the world, and sampling and diagnostic methods. The article stresses that there are numerous FMD viruses, and not all behave in a similar fashion. The practitioner must be acute in his or her herd inspection of animals in which vesicular disease is suspected and knowledgeable as to differential diagnosis. 10.1016/s0749-0720(02)00036-1
Optimal surveillance against foot-and-mouth disease: A sample average approximation approach. Kompas Tom,Ha Pham Van,Nguyen Hoa-Thi-Minh,Garner Graeme,Roche Sharon,East Iain PloS one Decisions surrounding the presence of infectious diseases are typically made in the face of considerable uncertainty. However, the development of models to guide these decisions has been substantially constrained by computational difficulty. This paper focuses on the case of finding the optimal level of surveillance against a highly infectious animal disease where time, space and randomness are fully considered. We apply the Sample Average Approximation approach to solve our problem, and to control model dimension, we propose the use of an infection tree model, in combination with sensible 'tree-pruning' and parallel processing techniques. Our proposed model and techniques are generally applicable to a number of disease types, but we demonstrate the approach by solving for optimal surveillance levels against foot-and-mouth disease using bulk milk testing as an active surveillance protocol, during an epidemic, among 42,279 farms, fully characterised by their location, livestock type and size, in the state of Victoria, Australia. 10.1371/journal.pone.0235969
A review of foot-and-mouth disease in Ethiopia: epidemiological aspects, economic implications, and control strategies. Virology journal Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a contagious viral disease that affects the livelihoods and productivity of livestock farmers in endemic regions. It can infect various domestic and wild animals with cloven hooves and is caused by a virus belonging to the genus Aphthovirus and family Picornaviridae, which has seven different serotypes: A, O, C, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3, and Asia-1. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the molecular epidemiology, economic impact, diagnosis, and control measures of FMD in Ethiopia in comparison with the global situation. The genetic and antigenic diversity of FMD viruses requires a thorough understanding for developing and applying effective control strategies in endemic areas. FMD has direct and indirect economic consequences on animal production. In Ethiopia, FMD outbreaks have led to millions of USD losses due to the restriction or rejection of livestock products in the international market. Therefore, in endemic areas, disease control depends on vaccinations to prevent animals from developing clinical disease. However, in Ethiopia, due to the presence of diverse antigenic serotypes of FMD viruses, regular and extensive molecular investigation of new field isolates is necessary to perform vaccine-matching studies to evaluate the protective potential of the vaccine strain in the country. 10.1186/s12985-023-02263-0
Assessment of foot-and-mouth disease risk areas in mainland China based spatial multi-criteria decision analysis. Haoran Wang,Jianhua Xiao,Maolin Ouyang,Hongyan Gao,Jia Bie,Li Gao,Xiang Gao,Hongbin Wang BMC veterinary research BACKGROUND:Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals. As a transboundary animal disease, the prevention and control of FMD are important. This study was based on spatial multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) to assess FMD risk areas in mainland China. Ten risk factors were identified for constructing risk maps by scoring, and the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was used to calculate the criteria weights of all factors. Different risk factors had different units and attributes, and fuzzy membership was used to standardize the risk factors. The weighted linear combination (WLC) and one-at-a-time (OAT) were used to obtain risk and uncertainty maps as well as to perform sensitivity analysis. RESULTS:Four major risk areas were identified in mainland China, including western (parts of Xinjiang and Tibet), southern (parts of Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Sichuan and Guangdong), northern (parts of Gansu, Ningxia and Inner Mongolia), and eastern (parts of Hebei, Henan, Anhui, Jiangsu and Shandong). Spring is the main season for FMD outbreaks. Risk areas were associated with the distance to previous outbreak points, grazing areas and cattle density. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis indicated that the risk map had good predictive power (AUC=0.8634). CONCLUSIONS:These results can be used to delineate FMD risk areas in mainland China, and veterinary services can adopt the targeted preventive measures and control strategies. 10.1186/s12917-021-03084-5
Evaluation of foot and mouth disease control measures: Simulating two endemic areas of Thailand. Preventive veterinary medicine Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an important livestock disease in Thailand, with outbreaks occurring every year. However, the effects of FMD control measures in Thailand have received little research attention. Epidemiological models have been widely used to evaluate FMD outbreak control, but such a model has never been developed for Thailand. We constructed a stochastic between-farm transmission model to evaluate FMD control measures. The epidemiological unit of the model was the farm, which could be in different states: susceptible, latent, undetected infectious, detected infectious and recovered. The between-farm transmission was calculated by the sum of distance-dependent transmission and trade network transmission using parameters derived from FMD outbreaks in 2016-2017. We used this model to simulate the outbreaks with and without the implementation of the following control measures: culling all animals on infected farms, ring vaccination, animal movement restrictions and isolation of infected farms. The control measures were evaluated by estimating the number of secondarily infected farms and the outbreak duration for each scenario. The model was simulated in two study areas located in the Lamphaya Klang subdistrict (high farm density) and the Bo Phloi district (low farm density). The effects of control measures differed between the two study areas. When farm density was high, rigid control measures were required to prevent a major outbreak. Among all options, culling the animals on infected farms resulted in the lowest number of infected farms and the shortest outbreak duration. In contrast, for an area with a low farm density, less stringent control measures were sufficient to control the usually minor outbreaks. The results indicate that different areas require a different approach to control an outbreak of FMD. 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.106045
Foot-and-mouth disease: past, present and future. Jamal Syed M,Belsham Graham J Veterinary research Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals including cattle, pigs, sheep and many wildlife species. It can cause enormous economic losses when incursions occur into countries which are normally disease free. In addition, it has long-term effects within countries where the disease is endemic due to reduced animal productivity and the restrictions on international trade in animal products. The disease is caused by infection with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), a picornavirus. Seven different serotypes (and numerous variants) of FMDV have been identified. Some serotypes have a restricted geographical distribution, e.g. Asia-1, whereas others, notably serotype O, occur in many different regions. There is no cross-protection between serotypes and sometimes protection conferred by vaccines even of the same serotype can be limited. Thus it is important to characterize the viruses that are circulating if vaccination is being used for disease control. This review describes current methods for the detection and characterization of FMDVs. Sequence information is increasingly being used for identifying the source of outbreaks. In addition such information can be used to understand antigenic change within virus strains. The challenges and opportunities for improving the control of the disease within endemic settings, with a focus on Eurasia, are discussed, including the role of the FAO/EuFMD/OIE Progressive Control Pathway. Better control of the disease in endemic areas reduces the risk of incursions into disease-free regions. 10.1186/1297-9716-44-116
Foot and mouth disease virus: transmission, pathogenesis, diagnosis and surveillance Virologie (Montrouge, France) Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most contagious viral animal diseases. It is an old disease which still poses a permanent threat of re-emergence for free zones. Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV), a Picornavirus belonging to genus Aphthovirus affects domestic and wild artiodactyls. FMD has a considerable socio-economic impact on agricultural production and trade in endemic regions, but also when incursions occur into FMD free areas, as in Europe in 2001. FMDV is historically one of the most studied viruses. Due to its high genetic and antigenic variability, the absence of cross-immunity between its seven serotypes, its ability to survive in the environment, its high contagiousness, its wide range of hosts and its particular biology, FMDV remains of major interest in animal health and the subject of many research projects. This review presents different aspects of FMDV infection, ranging from basic biology to diagnosis, surveillance and control. 10.1684/vir.2022.0972
Environmental persistence of foot-and-mouth disease virus applied to endemic regions. Mielke Sarah R,Garabed Rebecca Transboundary and emerging diseases The consequences of foot-and-mouth disease impact regional economies and food security through animal mortality and morbidity, trade restrictions and burdens to veterinary infrastructure. Despite efforts to control the disease, some regions, mostly in warmer climates, persistently report disease outbreaks. Consequently, it is necessary to understand how environmental factors influence transmission, of this economically devastating disease. Extensive research covers basic aetiology and transmission potential of livestock and livestock products for foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), with a subset evaluating environmental survival. However, this subset, completed in the early to mid-20th century in Northern Europe and the United States, is not easily generalized to today's endemic locations. This review uncovered 20 studies, to assess current knowledge and analyse the effects of environmental variables on FMDV survival, using a Cox proportional hazards (Coxph) model. However, the dataset is limited, for example pH was included in three studies and only five studies reported both relative humidity (RH) and temperature. After dropping pH from the analysis, our results suggest that temperature alone does not describe FMDV survival; instead, interactions between RH and temperature have broader impacts across various conditions. For instance, FMDV is expected to survive longer during the wet season (survival at day 50 is ~90% at 16°C and 86% RH) versus the dry season (survival at day 50 approaches 0% at 16°C and 37.5% RH) or comparatively in the UK versus the Southwestern United States. Additionally, survival on vegetation topped 70% on day 75 when conditions exceeded 20°C with high RH (86%), drastically higher than the survival on inanimate surfaces at the same temperature and RH (~0%). This is important in tropical regions, where high temperatures can persist throughout the year, but RH varies. Therefore, parameter estimates, for disease modelling and control in endemic areas, require environmental survival data from a wider range of conditions. 10.1111/tbed.13383
Foot-and-mouth disease vaccines. Diaz-San Segundo Fayna,Medina Gisselle N,Stenfeldt Carolina,Arzt Jonathan,de Los Santos Teresa Veterinary microbiology Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals. The disease affects many areas of the world, often causing extensive epizootics in livestock, mostly farmed cattle and swine, although sheep, goats and many wild species are also susceptible. In countries where food and farm animals are essential for subsistence agriculture, outbreaks of FMD seriously impact food security and development. In highly industrialized developed nations, FMD endemics cause economic and social devastation mainly due to observance of health measures adopted from the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). High morbidity, complex host-range and broad genetic diversity make FMD prevention and control exceptionally challenging. In this article we review multiple vaccine approaches developed over the years ultimately aimed to successfully control and eradicate this feared disease. 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.12.018
Foot-and-mouth disease. Grubman Marvin J,Baxt Barry Clinical microbiology reviews Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals. The disease was initially described in the 16th century and was the first animal pathogen identified as a virus. Recent FMD outbreaks in developed countries and their significant economic impact have increased the concern of governments worldwide. This review describes the reemergence of FMD in developed countries that had been disease free for many years and the effect that this has had on disease control strategies. The etiologic agent, FMD virus (FMDV), a member of the Picornaviridae family, is examined in detail at the genetic, structural, and biochemical levels and in terms of its antigenic diversity. The virus replication cycle, including virus-receptor interactions as well as unique aspects of virus translation and shutoff of host macromolecular synthesis, is discussed. This information has been the basis for the development of improved protocols to rapidly identify disease outbreaks, to differentiate vaccinated from infected animals, and to begin to identify and test novel vaccine candidates. Furthermore, this knowledge, coupled with the ability to manipulate FMDV genomes at the molecular level, has provided the framework for examination of disease pathogenesis and the development of a more complete understanding of the virus and host factors involved. 10.1128/CMR.17.2.465-493.2004